tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-33555276781111773442024-02-18T20:12:57.720-08:00PSYCHOLOGYBA Psychology,BS Psychology,Bachelors Psychology, Child Psychology,Entry Level Psychology,Industrial Psychology,abnormal behavior,applied psychology,behaviorism,clinical psychology,cognitive psychology,consumer psychology,counseling psychology,developmental psychology,educational psychology,environmental psychology,experimental psychology,forensic psychology,functionalism,gestalt psychology,heredityYasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.comBlogger68125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-19130163017082936572011-02-26T04:59:00.001-08:002011-02-26T04:59:55.548-08:00Relaxation products from Quality Herbals<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">At the conclusion of a long day, you deserve to unwind and let your tension disappear. Do not carry that strain around with you. This allows it to simmer and build. Preferably, you ought to let it go. Learn to breathe deeply and revel in life's peaceful times. There are a handful of proven products that will let you obtain the euphoria and peace you are searching for. Let Quality Herbals help you discover a realm of serenity and satisfaction that should keep you coming back and make you question how you previously got through the day devoid of these products. Quality Herbals delivers well-known types of quality herbal incense and quality herbal potpourri, along with everything you need to delight in legal herbal incense and aroma oils and warmers. Put your mental health and your state of being in reliable, healing hands with Quality Herbals. These experts can assist you accomplish a tailored relaxation and rejuvenation experience with everything from incense and incense burners to ornamental oil warmers.<br />
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</div>Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-67112635782489093932011-01-09T09:18:00.001-08:002011-01-09T09:18:58.099-08:00The Central Nervous System<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" LatentStyleCount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Although the brain is exceedingly complicated, an understanding of the basic features of brain development makes it easier to learn and remember the location of the most important structures. With that end in mind.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Development of the Central Nervous System</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The CNS begins its existence early in embryonic life as a hollow tube, and it maintains this basic shape even after it is fully developed.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The CNS contains three interconnected chambers. These chambers become ventricles and the tissue that surrounds them becomes the three major parts of the brain, The Forebrain, The Midbrain and The Hindbrain. As development progress the rostral chamber divides into three separate chambers which become the two lateral ventricles and the third ventricle. The region around the lateral ventricles becomes the telencephlon (end brain) and the region around the third ventricle becomes the diencephlon (interbrain). In its final form the chamber inside the midbrain (mesencephalon) becomes narrow, formatting the cerebral aqueduct and two structures develop in the hindbrain: the metencephlon (after brain) and the myelencephlon (marrow brain).</span></div>Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-81858751457435948822011-01-09T09:17:00.000-08:002011-01-09T09:17:59.116-08:00The Forebrain<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" LatentStyleCount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The Forebrain surrounds the rostral end of the neural tube. Its two major components are the telencephlon and the diencephlon.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Telencephlon</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The telencephlon includes most of the two symmetrical cerebral hemispheres that make up the cerebrum. The cerebral hemispheres Rae covered by the cerebral cortex and contain the limbic system and the basal ganglia. The limbic system and the basal ganglia are primarily in the subcortical regions of the brain _those located deep within it, beneath the cerebral cortex.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Cerebral Cortex </span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Cortex means "Bark" and the cerebral cortex surrounds the cerebral hemispheres like the bark of the tree. In humans the cerebral is greatly convoluted. These convolutions consisting of sulci (small grooves), fissures (large grooves) and gyri (bulges between adjacent sulci or fissures) greatly enlarge the surface area of the cortex, compared with a smooth brain of the same size. In fact two-thirds of the surface of the cortex is hidden in the grooves. The total surface area is approximately 2360cm (2.5 ft) and the thickness is approximately 3mm.The cerebral cortex consists mostly of glia and the cell bodies, dendrites and interconnecting axons of neurons. The cerebral cortex has a grayish brown appearance and it is called Gray Matter. Millions of axons run beneath the cerebral cortex and connects its neurons with those located elsewhere in the brain. The large concentration of myelin around these axons gives this tissue an opaque white appearance_____hence the term White Matter.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Different regions of the cerebral cortex perform different functions. Three regions receive information from the sensory organs. The primary visual cortex which receives visual information is located at the back of the brain on the inner surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres____primarily on the upper and lower banks of the <b>Calcarine Fissure</b>.(Calcarine means "spur-shaped").<i> </i>The <i>primary auditory cortex </i>which receives auditory information is located on the upper surface of a deep fissure in the side of the brain ___ the <b>Lateral Fissure</b>. The <i>primary somatosensory cortex </i>a vertical strip of cortex just caudal to the <b>central sulcus</b> receives information from the body senses. In addition the base of the somatosensory cortex receives information concerning taste.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The region of the cerebral cortex most directly involved in the control of movement is the Primary Motor Cortex locate just in front of the primary somatosensory cortex. Neurons in different parts of the primary motor cortex are connected to muscles in different parts of the body. I like to think of the strip of primary motor cortex as the key board of a piano, with each key controlling a different movement. The regions of primary sensory and motor cortex occupy any a small part of the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is divided into four areas or Lobes named for the bones of the skull that cover them, <b>The Frontal Lobe, Parietal Lobe, Temporal Lobe, </b>and <b>Occipital Lobe</b>. The frontal lobe includes everything in front of the central fissure. The parietal lobe is located on the side of the cerebral hemisphere, just behind the central sulcus, caudal to the frontal lobe. The temporal lobe just forward from the base of the brain, ventral to the frontal and parietal lobes. The occipital lobe lies at the very back of the brain, caudal to the parietal and temporal lobes.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Each primary sensory area of the cerebral cortex sends information to adjacent regions called the <b>Sensory Association Cortex. </b>Circuits of neurons in the sensory association cortex analyze the information received from the primary sensory cortex, perception takes place there and memories are stored there. The regions of the sensory association cortex located closest to the primary sensory areas receive information from only one sensory system. For example the region closest to the primary visual cortex analyzes visual information and stores visual memories. Just as regions of the sensory association cortex are involved in perceiving and remembering, the motor association cortex located just rostral to the primary motor cortex is involved in the planning and execution of movements. The rest of the frontal lobe rostral to the motor association cortex is known as the <i>Prefrontal Cortex.</i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Although the two cerebral hemispheres cooperate with each other they do not perform identical functions. Some functions are <b>Lateralized </b>__located primarily in one side of the brain. <span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Corpus Callosum a large band of axons connects the two Cerebral Hemispheres.</span></i></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The cerebral cortex that covers most of the surface of the cerebral hemispheres (including the frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes) is called the <b>Neocortex. </b>Another form of cerebral cortex the <b>Limbic Cortex </b>is located around the medial edge of the cerebral hemispheres (limbus means "border"). The <b>Cingulate Gyrius </b>an important region of the limbic cortex.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The <b>fornix </b>is a bundle of axons that connects the hippocampus with other regions of the brain including the <b>Mamillary Bodies, </b>protrusions on the base of the brain that contain pats of the hypothalamus. Only part of the limbic system __the amygdale __is specifically involved in <i>Emotions</i>.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Basal Ganglia</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The basal ganglia are collections of nuclei located deep within the forebrain, beneath the anterior portion of the lateral ventricles. <b>Nuclei</b> are groups of<span> </span>neurons of similar shape. The basal ganglia are involved in the control of movement. For example Parkinson's disease is caused by degeneration of certain neurons located in the midbrain that send axons to the caudate nucleus and the putamen.This disease consists of weakness, tremors, rigidity of the limbs, poor balance and difficulty in initiating movements.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Diencephlon</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The second major division of the forebrain the <i>diencephalon </i>is situated between the telencephalon and the mesencephalon; it surrounds the third ventricle. Its two most important structures are the <i>Thalamus </i><span> </span>and the <i>Hypothalamus.</i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Thalamus</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The thalamus (from the Greek <i>thalamos </i>"inner chamber") comprises the dorsal part of the diencephalon. It is situated near the middle of the cerebral hemispheres, immediately medial and caudal to the basal ganglia. The thalamus has two lobes connected by a bridge of gray matter called the <i>Massa Intermedia </i>which pierces the middle of the third ventricle. Most neural input to the cerebral cortex is received from the thalamus.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Projection axons</span></i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;"> are sets of axons that arise from cell bodies located in one region of the brain and synapse on neurons located within another region. The <i>lateral geniculate nucleus</i> receives information from the eye and sends axons to the primary visual cortex and the <i>medial geniculate nucleus</i> receives information from the inner ear and sends axons to the primary auditory cortex. The <i>ventrolateral nucleus</i> receives information from the cerebellum and projects it to the primary motor cortex.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Hypothalamus</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The hypothalamus lies at the base of the brain under the thalamus. It is situated on both sides of the lower part of the third ventricle. Although the hypothalamus is a relatively small structure, it is an important one. It controls the automatic nervous system and the endocrine system and organizes behaviors related to survival of the species, such as fighting, fleeing and mating. The hypothalamus is a complex structure containing many nuclei and fiber tracts.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Note</span></i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;"> that the pituitary gland is attached to the base of the hypothalamus via the pituitary stalk. Just in front of the pituitary stalk is the <b>Optic Chiasm </b>where half of the axons in the optic nerves (from the eyes) cross from one side of the brain to the other. Much of the endocrine system is controlled by hormones produced by cells in the hypothalamus. A special system of blood vessels directly connects the hypothalamus with an important endocrine gland the <b>Anterior Pituitary Gland.</b> Most of the hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland control other endocrine glands.</span></div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Because of this function the anterior pituitary gland has been called the body's <b>"Master Gland". </b>For example<b> </b>the<b> </b>gonad tropic hormones stimulate the gonads (ovaries and testes) to release male or female sex hormones. These hormones affect cells throughout the body including some in the brain. Two other anterior pituitary hormones -- prolactin and somatotropic harmone (growth harmone) -- do not control other glands but act as the final messenger. The <b>Posterior Pituitary Gland </b>is in many ways an extension of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus produces the posterior pituitary hormones and directly controls their secretion. These hormones include <b>Oxytocin</b> which stimulates ejection of milk and uterine contractions at the time of childbirth, and <b>Vasopressin</b> which regulates uterine output by the kidneys. There are produced by two different sets of neurons in the hypothalamus whose axons travel down the <i>pituitary stalk</i> and terminate in the posterior pituitary gland.</span>Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-42549862739491152782011-01-09T09:13:00.000-08:002011-01-09T09:13:10.280-08:00The Midbrain<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" LatentStyleCount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The midbrain (also called the <b>mesencephalon</b>) surrounds the cerebral Aqueduct and consists of two major parts the <b>Tectum</b> and the <b>Tegmentum.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Tectum</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The Tectum (roof) is located in the dorsal portion of the midbrain. Its principal structures are the <b>superior colliculi </b>and <b>inferior colliculi</b>, which appears as four bumps on the surface of the <b>brain stem</b>. The brain stem includes the diencephalons, midbrain and hindbrain, and it is so called because it looks just like that ___a stem. The inferior colliculi are a part of auditory system. The superior colliculi are part of the Visual System. In mammals there are involved primarily in visual reflexes and reactions to moving stimuli.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Te Tegmentum (covering) consists of the portion of the midbrain beneath the Tectum. It includes the rostral end of the reticular formation, several nuclei that control eye movements, the periaqueductal gray matter, the Red nucleus, the Substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The <b>Reticular formation</b> is a structure consisting of many individual nuclei. It is also characterized by a diffuse, interconnected network of neurons with complex dendritic and axonal processes. (Indeed reticular means "little net"; early anatomists were struck by the netlike appearance of the reticular formation).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The <b>Periaqueductal Gray Matter</b> is so called because it consists mostly of cell bodies of neurons ("gray matter" as contrasted with the "white matter" of axon bundles) that surrounds cerebral aqueduct as it travels from the third to the fourth ventricle. The periaqueductal gray matter contains <i>neural circuits </i>that control sequences of movements seen in some <i>species-typical </i>behaviors, such as fighting and mating.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The <b>Red Nucleus and Substantia Nigra </b>(black substance) are important components of the <i>Motor System</i>. A bundle of axons that arises from the red nucleus makes up one of the two major <b>Fiber</b> systems that bring motor information from the <i>cerebral cortex and cerebellum </i>to the spinal cord. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">I mentioned earlier that Parkinson's disease is caused by Degeneration of certain neurons located in the midbrain that send axons to the Caudate nucleus and the Putamen.</span></i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">These neurons are located in the substantia nigra.</span></div>Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-57438731291145329342011-01-09T09:11:00.000-08:002011-01-09T09:11:18.299-08:00The Hindbrain<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" LatentStyleCount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The hindbrain which surrounds the Fourth Ventricle consists of two major divisions the <i>Metencephalon and the Myelencephalon</i>.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Metencephalon</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The Metencephalon consists of the <i>Pones</i> and the <i>Cerebellum.</i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Cerebellum</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The cerebellum (little brain) with its two hemispheres, resembles a miniature version of the cerebrum. It is covered by the <b>cerebellar cortex </b>and has a set of <b>deep cerebellar nuclei</b>.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">These nuclei receive Projections from the cerebellar cortex and themselves send Projections out of the cerebellum to other parts of the brain. Each hemisphere of the cerebellum is attached to the dorsal surface of the pones by bundles of axons: the superior, middle, and inferior <b>Cerebellar peduncles </b>(little feet).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Damage to the cerebellum impairs standing, walking, of performance of coordinated movements. The cerebellum integrates this information and modifies the motor outflow, exerting a coordinating and smoothing effect on the movements. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Cerebellar damage results in Jerky, Poorly coordinated, exaggerated movements; extensive cerebellar damage makes it impossible even to stand.</span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Pones</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The pones a <i>large bulge </i>in the brain stem, lies between the mesencephalon and <b>Medulla Oblongata</b>, immediately ventral to the cerebellum. Pones mean "bridge" but it does not really look like one. The pones contain in its core a portion of the reticular formation, including some nuclei that appear to be important in <i>Sleep</i> and <i>Arousal</i>. It also contains a large nucleus that relays information from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Myelencephalon</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The Myelencephalon contains one major structure, the <b>Medulla Oblongata </b>(literally "oblong marrow"), just called the Medulla. This structure is the most caudal portion of the brain stem; its lower border is the rostral end of the Spinal Cord. The medulla contains part of the reticular formation; including nuclei that control vital functions such as Regulation of the Cardio-vascular system, Respiration and Skeletal muscle tonus.</span>Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-38901257114357327592011-01-09T09:09:00.000-08:002011-01-09T09:09:45.204-08:00The Spinal Cord<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" LatentStyleCount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style>
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<div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The spinal cord is a long structure, approximately as thick as our little finger. The principal function of the spinal cord is to distribute motor axons to the effector organs of the body (glands and muscles) and to collect somatosensory information to be passed on to brain. The spinal cord also has a certain degree of autonomy from the brain, various reflexive control circuits are located there.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The spinal cord is protected by the verbal column, <i>which is composed of twenty-four individual vertebrae of the cervical (neck), thoracic (chest), and lumbar (Lower back) regions </i>and the fused vertebrae making up the sacral and coccygeal portions of the column (located in the pelvic region). The spinal cord passes through a hole in each of the vertebrae (the spinal foramens). The spinal cord is only about two thirds as long as the vertebral column; the rest of the space is filled by a mass of spinal roots composing the <b>Caudal Equina </b>(horse a tail).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Early in embryological development the <b>vertebral column </b>and spinal cord are the same length. As development progress the vertebral column grows faster than the spinal cord. To produced the Caudal Block that is sometimes used in pelvic surgery, a local anesthetic can be injected into the CSF contained within the sac of durra mater surrounding the cauda equina. The drug blocks conduction in the axons of the cauda equina which produces <i>temporary anesthesia (and paralysis) of the lower part of the body.</i> Small bundles of axons emerge from each side of the spinal cord in two straight lines along its dorsolateral and ventrolateral surfaces. Groups of these bundles fuse together and become the <b>Thirty-one paired sets </b>of dorsal roots and ventral roots. The dorsal and ventral roots join together as they pass through gaps between the vertebrae and become <b>Spinal Nerves.</b></span></div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The spinal cord consists of white matter and gray matter. In the spinal cord the white matter is on the outside and the gray matter is on the inside. The white matter consists of <i>ascending and descending bundles of myelinated axons, </i>and the gray matter consists mostly of <i>neural cell bodies and short, unmyelinated axons.</i></span>Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-16031214728437302352011-01-09T09:08:00.000-08:002011-01-09T09:08:13.200-08:00The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" LatentStyleCount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style>
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<div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The brain and spinal cord communicate with the <b>body </b><i>Via</i><b> cranial nerves and spinal nerves</b>. These nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system which conveys sensory information to the central nervous system and conveys messages from the central nervous system to the body's muscles and glands.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Spinal Nerves (Somatic Nervous System)</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The spinal nerves begin at the junction of the dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord. The nerves leave the vertebral column and travel to the muscles or sensory <i>receptors they innervate</i>, branching repeatedly as they go. Branches of spinal nerves often follow <b>blood vessels</b>, especially those branches that innervate skeletal muscles. The cell bodies of all axons that bring sensory information into the brain and spinal cord are located outside the CNS. (The sole exception is the visual system; the Retina of the eye is actually a part of the brain). These incoming axons are referred to as Afferent Axons because they "bear toward" the CNS. The cell bodies that give rise to the axons that bring somatosensory information to the spinal cord reside in the<i> </i><b>Dorsal Root Ganglia<i>, </i></b>rounded swellings of the dorsal root. These neurons are of the <b>Unipolar type</b>.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Cell bodies that give rise to the ventral root are located within the gray matter of the spinal cord.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Cranial Nerves</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Twelve pairs </span></i></b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">of cranial nerves leave the ventral surface of the brain. Most of these nerves serve sensory and motor functions of the head and neck region. one of tenth or<b> Vagus Nerve</b>, regulates the functions of organs in the <i>thoracic and abdominal cavities</i>. It is called the vagus (wandering) nerve because its branches wander throughout the thoracic and abdominal cavities. (The word <i>Vagabond</i> has the same root).</span></div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Several forms of sensory information are received through cranial nerves. These nerves convey somatosensory information from the head and neck region, information concerning taste from the tongue, auditory information and information concerning balance from the ears, visual information from the eyes, and information concerning smell from nose.</span>Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-89581815560905625992011-01-09T09:07:00.000-08:002011-01-09T09:07:25.509-08:00The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" LatentStyleCount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style>
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<div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The part of the peripheral nervous system which receives sensory information from the sensory organs and that controls movements of the skeletal muscles __ is called the somatic nervous system. The other branch of the peripheral nervous system ---- the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is concerned with regulation of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands. (Autonomic means “self-governing”). Smooth muscles is found in the skin (associated with hair follicles), in blood vessels, in the eyes (controlling pupil size and accommodation of the lens), and in the walls and sphincters of the gut, gallbladder and urinary bladder. Thus the autonomic nervous system is involved in controlling blood pressure, body temperature, digestive functions and other physiological functions. The ANS consists of two anatomically separate systems the <b>Sympathetic division</b> and the <b>Parasympathetic division.</b> With few exceptions organs of the body are innervated by both of these subdivisions and each has a different effect.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Sympathetic Division of the ANS</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The sympathetic division is most involved in activities associated with expenditure of energy from reserves that are stored in the body. F.E when an organism is excited, the sympathetic nervous system increase blood flow to skeletal muscles, stimulates the secretion of <i>epinephrine</i> (a harmone that increase heart rate and raises blood sugar level), and causes piloerection __erection of four in mammals that have it and production of “goose bumps” in humans.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The cell bodies of sympathetic motor neurons are located in the gray matter of the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord (hence the sympathetic nervous system is also known as the Thoracolumbar system). The axons of these neurons exit via the ventral roots. After joining the spinal nerves the axons branch off and pass into spinal sympathetic ganglia (not to be confused with the dorsal root ganglia). The axons that leave the spinal cord through the ventral root are part of the <b>Preganglionic neurons.</b> The neurons with which they form synapses are called <b>Postganglionic neurons.</b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Parasympathetic Division of the ANS</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The parasympathetic division of the ANS supports activities that are involved with increase in the body’s supply of stored energy. These activities include salivation, gastric and intestinal motility, secretion of digestive juices and increased blood flow to the gastrointestinal system.</span></div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Cell bodies that give rise to Preganglionic axons in the parasympathetic nervous system are located in two regions: the nuclei of some of the cranial nerves (especially the Vagus nerve) and the gray mater in the sacral region of the spinal cord. T parasympathetic division of the ANS has often been referred to as the <b>Craniosacral system</b>. The terminal buttons of both Preganglionic and postganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic nervous system secrete <b>Acetylcholine</b>.</span>Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-21234472065284210232010-12-31T11:54:00.000-08:002010-12-31T11:54:22.009-08:00Motivation<div style="text-align: center;"><b>"Motivation is defined as a process that arouses directs and maintain behavior". </b><br />
The following part of the brain are involved in motivation.</div><br />
<b>Hypothalamus</b><br />
<br />
This part of brain is known to be a critical importance in the system of eating, drinking, sleeping, sexual and emotional behavior. The general location of this part is between midbrain and diencephalon and is physically at the base of cerebellum, lying above the optic chiasm and is adjacent to the pituitary gland.<br />
It is consisted on 3 major Zones carried 14 major nuclei. The zones are anterior hypothalamus, the lateral hypothalamus and the ventro medial hypothalamus. The nuclei are interconnected in a very complex form and controlled different aspects of body e.g gustatory and somatosensory, olfactory, sensory system and lower portion or regions and the most anterior of the body.<br />
<br />
<b>Hypocampus</b><br />
<br />
The part of limbic system the covered sea horse shaped brain structure of mostly gray matter. It runs from the dorsal part to the Corpus Callusum. It has primary function in the mediation of olfactory and visceral process. As a part of limbic system it is also considered a major region of motivation. The lesion in this region may become the disability of motivation.<br />
Amygadala and Almond shaped neural structure comprises the part of the temporal lobe. It is involved in the regulation of Homeostasis which means the process in which the body's substances and characteristics such as temprature, glucose level and maintain required level.Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-1688987188976284312010-12-31T11:52:00.000-08:002010-12-31T11:52:30.844-08:00Thirst<div style="text-align: center;"><b>"Thirst an internal physiological state that results from water dispiration".</b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div>The body contain four major fluid compartments, one is Intra Cellular the other three are Extra Cellular fluid compartments. The compartments which is found within the cell is called Intra Cellular. The fluid portion of the cytoplasm of the cell or the fluid contained within the cell.<br />
The rest of fluid is known to be Extra Cellular fluid or the fluid outside the cell. It is divided into three major compartments.<br />
<br />
<b>I)</b> Inter Stitial Fluid.<br />
It means that baths. The cell filling the space between the cells of the body.<br />
<b>II)</b> Blood Plasma/ Intra Vascular Fluid.<br />
This fluid is found within the Vessels.<br />
<b>III)</b> Cerebro Spinal Fluid.<br />
It is similar to blood plasma that is found in the ventricular system of the brain and the subarchnoid space surrounding the brain and spinal cord.<br />
<br />
The intra cellular fluid is controlled by the concentrations of Solutes in the inter stitial fluid.<br />
<br />
<b>Solutes</b><br />
<br />
A solid compound that is desorption in liquid or solution normally inter-stitial fluid is "Isotomic" which means equal to osmotic pressure to the contents of the cell. A cell placed in isotomic solution neither loses nor gain water, due to this aspect water does not move into or outside the cell, while the inter-stitial loses water. The losing of water is known to be "hypertonic" and another hand if the inter-stitial fluid gains water is called "hypotonic".<br />
<br />
<b>Hypovolmia</b><br />
<br />
Reduction in the volume of the intra vascular fluid. Litrarily ,earns low volume of blood. Due to this problem Heart can no longer pump the blood and Heart failure can occur. In other words there are two important characteristics of the body fluid which maintain the body system.<br />
<b>1)</b> The solute concentration of intra cellular compartments.<br />
<b>2)</b> Volume of blood.<br />
Water regulates with above methods.Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-5459722532272725712010-12-31T11:49:00.000-08:002010-12-31T11:49:27.570-08:00Types of Thirst<div style="text-align: center;">Thirst means a sensation that people say that they are dehydrated or tendency to suck water and to ingest it. There are two kinds of thirst.</div><br />
<b>1. Osmomatric Thirst</b><br />
<br />
The term means to the fact that three detectors or actually responding to change in the concentration of the inter-stitial fluid that surrounds them. Osmosis means the movement of water through semipermeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to one of high solute concentration.<br />
<i>Semipermeable membrane</i> -- A membrane that allows some but not all molecules to pass through osmomatric thirst produce by an increase in the osmomatric pressure of the inter-stitial fluid relative to intra-cellular, thus produce cellular dehydration.<br />
<i>Osmosis receptors </i>-- Neurons that detect in the solute concentration of the intra-stitial fluid that surrounds in and are responsible of osmomatric thirst and located in the region of the anterior of hypothalamus.<br />
<i>Thirst osmomatric</i> -- Thirst produce by increase in the relative osmatic pressure of extra cellular fluid which results from loss of cellular fluid.<br />
<i>Thirst volumetric</i> -- Thirst produce by decrease amount of extra cellular fluid in the body.<br />
<br />
<b>2. Volumetric Thirst</b><br />
<br />
This type of thirst is associated with the decrease volume of the blood or blood plasma or decrease in intra vascular volume and it occur mostly through evaporation or through loss of blood, vomiting and diarrhea.<br />
Receptors of kidney -- These are the receptors which controlled the secretion of Angiotensin.<br />
Angiotensin is a peptide hormone that constrict blood vessels causes the retension of sodium and water produce thirst and salt appetite.<br />
Receptors of Heart and Blood -- These are also known as arterial baror receptors. These are associated with the volumetric thirst lie within the heart which contains sensory neurons when the blood plasma fall in the vessels. These receptors detect the change and stimulate processes.<br />
<br />
<b>Organum Vasculosum of the Lamina terminals (OVLT)</b><br />
<br />
A circum ventricular organ located anterior portion of the third ventricle served by fenestrated capillaries and it is known to be blood brain barrier.<br />
<br />
<b>Sub Fornical Organ (SFO)</b><br />
<br />
A small organ located in the lateral ventricle attached to the underside of the fornics contain neurons that detect the presence of angiotensin in the blood and excite neural circuits that initiate drinking.<br />
Neural Mechanism of Thirst<br />
<b>1)</b> Some part of anterior third ventricle and dorsal.<br />
<b>2)</b> Hormones get signals from angiotensin.Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-19969739781616464512010-12-31T11:44:00.000-08:002010-12-31T11:44:14.623-08:00HungerWhen we eat , we must satiation obtain adequate amount of carbohydrates, fats, amino acids, vitamins and minerals. This amount supplied us fuel and reservoirs in our body.These reservoirs are short and long term. Short term reservoirs base on carbohydrates and long term stores fats. The short term is located in the cells of liver and muscles and is field with complex insoluble carbohydrates called Glycogen. This is the conversion of glucose into glycogen in a liver functioning process. While the long term reservoirs consist of adipose tissues (fatty tissues). This is filled with fats or "triglycerides" which are the complex molecules that contain 'glycerol' or 'glycine' combined with 3 fatty acids.<br />
<br />
<i>1) Stearic acid.<br />
2) Oliec acid.<br />
3) Palmit acid.</i><br />
<br />
Adipose tissue is found beneath the skin and abdominal cavity. It consists of cells absorbing nutrients from the blood, converting them into triglycerides and storing them. This is called the Metabolism of eating and the phase through all process occur is called absorptive phase. <br />
The brain lives on glucose and the rest of the body lives on fatty acids. The brain contain detectors that monitor the availability of glucose inside the blood brain barrier (the vessels which bear blood and supplies blood to the brain) and the liver contain the detectors that monitor the availability of nutrients (glucose and fatty acids) outside the blood brain barrier.<br />
Hypoglycemia is a potent stimulus for hunger. If a dramatic fall in the level of glucose occur due to some factors. That is known to be glucoprivation (hypoglycemia) or the deprivation of glucose in the cells which stimulate eating hunger. Hunger is also associated lipoprivation which means a fall in the level of fatty acids.<br />
<br />
<b>Satiety Signals</b><br />
<br />
There are two sources.<br />
<i>Short term Satiety signals</i><br />
Eyes, nose, mouth, stomach, dudemum, liver. Each part signals to brain that indicate the food has injusted and processing on the way toward absorption.<br />
<i>Long term Satiety signals</i><br />
These signals are associated with the calories by modulating the sensitivity of brain mechanism involved in hunger.<br />
<br />
<b>Some Other Factors</b><br />
<br />
<b>1)</b> Head factors<br />
These factors refers to the several sets of receptors located in the head, eye, nose, throat and tongue.<br />
<b>2) </b>Gastric factors<br />
The stomach contain receptors that detect the presence of food.<br />
<b>3)</b> Intestinal factors<br />
Intestines contain also some detectors which are sensitive to the presence of glucose, amino acids and fatty acids. Their axons send statiey signals to the brain.<br />
<b>4)</b> Liver factors<br />
Liver receives nutrients from the intestine and send signals to the brain.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><b>Neural Mechanism</b></div><br />
<b>Brain Stem</b><br />
Brain stem contains neural circuits that are able to control food and satiation or physiological hunger signals such as glucose signals by means of decrease in glucose metabolism or food in the digestive system. In the brain stem the area "Posterma" and "nucleus of the solitary track" region (AP/NST) receives signals from tongue, stomach, small intestine and liver and sends information to the lateral "Para brachial nucleus" of the pones which passes the information to many regions of the brain. These signals help to control food intake.<br />
Para Brachial Nucleus<br />
A nucleus in the pons that receives gustatory information and informations from the liver and digestive system and relays it to the forbrain.<br />
<br />
<b>Hypothalamus</b><br />
<br />
The two important portions of hypothalamus the lateral and ventro medial nucleus controlled hunger and satiety signals.<br />
<br />
<b>5-HT (NTM)</b><br />
<br />
It inhibit eating especially carbohydrates.Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-26244184402972468912010-12-31T11:38:00.000-08:002010-12-31T11:38:51.075-08:00Eating Disoders<b>1. Obesity</b><br />
<br />
Obesity is a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_condition" title="Medical condition">medical condition</a> in which excess <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_fat" title="Body fat">body fat</a> has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health, leading to reduced <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> and/or increased health problems.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO_2000_p.6_0-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity#cite_note-WHO_2000_p.6-0"><span></span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-HaslamJames_1-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity#cite_note-HaslamJames-1"><span></span></a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_mass_index" title="Body mass index">Body mass index</a> (BMI), a measurement which compares <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_weight" title="Human weight">weight</a> and height, defines people as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overweight" title="Overweight">overweight</a> (pre-obese) if their BMI is between 25 kg/m<sup>2</sup> and 30 kg/m<sup>2</sup>, and obese when it is greater than 30 kg/m<sup>2</sup>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO_2000_p.9_2-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity#cite_note-WHO_2000_p.9-2"><span></span><span></span></a></sup><br />
Obesity increases the likelihood of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity_associated_morbidity" title="Obesity associated morbidity">various diseases</a>, particularly <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiovascular_diseases" title="Cardiovascular diseases">heart disease</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus_type_2" title="Diabetes mellitus type 2">type 2 diabetes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstructive_sleep_apnea" title="Obstructive sleep apnea">breathing difficulties during sleep</a>, certain types of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteoarthritis" title="Osteoarthritis">osteoarthritis</a>. Obesity is most commonly caused by a combination of excessive <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_energy" title="Food energy">dietary calories</a>, lack of physical activity, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygenic_inheritance" title="Polygenic inheritance">genetic susceptibility</a>, although a few cases are caused primarily by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine" title="Endocrine">endocrine</a> disorders, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medications</a> or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_illness" title="Psychiatric illness">psychiatric illness</a>. Evidence to support the view that some obese people eat little yet gain weight due to a slow metabolism is limited; on average obese people have a greater energy expenditure than their thin counterparts due to the energy required to maintain an increased body mass.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity#cite_note-3"><span></span><span></span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Anes2000_4-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity#cite_note-Anes2000-4"><span></span><span></span></a></sup><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieting" title="Dieting">Dieting</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_exercise" title="Physical exercise">physical exercise</a> are the mainstays of treatment for obesity. Moreover, it is important to improve diet quality by reducing the consumption of energy-dense foods such as those high in fat and sugars, and by increasing the intake of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_fiber" title="Dietary fiber">dietary fiber</a>. To supplement this, or in case of failure, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-obesity_drug" title="Anti-obesity drug">anti-obesity drugs</a> may be taken to reduce appetite or inhibit fat absorption. In severe cases, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bariatric_surgery" title="Bariatric surgery">surgery</a> is performed or an intragastric balloon is placed to reduce stomach volume and/or bowel length, leading to earlier satiation and reduced ability to absorb nutrients from food.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-balloon2008_6-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity#cite_note-balloon2008-6"><span></span></a></sup><br />
Obesity is a leading <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventable_causes_of_death" title="Preventable causes of death">preventable cause of death</a> worldwide, with increasing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">prevalence</a> in adults and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_obesity" title="Childhood obesity">children</a>, and authorities view it as one of the most serious <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> problems of the 21st century.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Barn1999_7-0"> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity#cite_note-Barn1999-7"><span></span><span></span></a></sup>Obesity is <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight_stigma" title="Weight stigma">stigmatized</a> in much of the modern world (particularly in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>), though it was widely perceived as a symbol of wealth and fertility at other times in history, and still is in some parts of the world.<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;"><b>Childhood obesity can begin as early as 9 Months of age, Researchers Find</b></div><br />
Everyone loves a roly-poly baby. Still, there is such a thing as an overweight infant, and obese babies -- even those as young as 9 months -- are predisposed to being obese later in life, researchers say in Friday's issue of the <a href="http://www.healthpromotionjournal.com/">American Journal of Health Promotion</a>.<br />
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Childhood obesity is a growing public health problem in the United States. It has been linked to psychological problems, asthma, cardiovascular troubles and a greater chance of developing diabetes.<br />
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Hoping to better understand the factors associated with being obese at a very early age -- and possibly help parents and health advocates stave off its ill effects -- lead author Brian G. Moss of Wayne State University and William H. Yeaton of the University of Michigan analyzed data from the <a href="http://nces.ed.gov/ecls/birth.asp">Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort</a>, a nationally representative sample of American children born in 2001.<br />
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<a href="http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/booster_shots/2010/03/child-obesity-feeding-weight.html"><strong>RELATED: Obesity prevention starts early -- really, really early</strong></a><br />
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The data included height, weight and demographic characteristics of 8,900 9-month-old babies and 7,500 2-year-old toddlers. Obese children were defined as those who exceeded the 95th percentile for body-mass index (as defined by the <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/childrens_bmi/about_childrens_bmi.html">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>), and those between the 85th and 95th percentile were considered "at risk."<br />
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Moss and Yeaton found that 32% of children were either obese or at risk of obesity by the tender age of 9 months. That figure increased to 34% by the time the munchkins reached their second birthdays.<br />
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"We weren't surprised by the prevalence rates we found in our study, but we were surprised the trend began at such a young age," Moss said in a statement.<br />
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Among the patterns that emerged: <br />
<ul><li>Boys were more at risk than girls (this contradicted earlier research). </li>
<li>Latinos had the highest risk.</li>
<li>Geographic location was not consistently associated with being obese or at risk.</li>
<li>The family's socioeconomic status didn't seem to make a difference at 9 months of age. But by two years, the kids in the bottom economic 20% were most likely to be obese or at risk, while those in the top 20% were least likely to be obese or at risk.</li>
</ul>No one is suggesting that babies be put on a diet. But knowing more about the demographic characteristics of very young children who are more likely to become obese could help health officials and parents prevent later health troubles by promoting healthier eating and lifestyle choices.<br />
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<a href="http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/booster_shots/2010/04/childhood-obesity-rates-geographical-.html"><strong>RELATED: A new map of childhood obesity in the U.S.</strong></a><br />
<b>2. Anorexia Nervousa (Loss of Peptite)</b><br />
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This disorder is most frequently affect young women concerned with over weight that leads to excessive dieting and often compulsive exercising can lead to starvation.<br />
<b>Anorexia nervosa</b> is an eating disorder characterized by refusal to maintain a healthy body weight and an obsessive fear of gaining weight, often coupled with a distorted <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_image" title="Body image">self image</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa#cite_note-0"><span></span></a></sup> which may be maintained by various <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive biases</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa#cite_note-2"><span></span></a></sup> that alter how the affected individual evaluates and thinks about her or his body, food and eating. Persons with anorexia nervosa continue to feel hunger, but deny themselves all but very small quantities of food. The average caloric intake of a person with anorexia nervosa is 600-800 calories per day, but in extreme cases self-starvation is more extreme.It is a serious mental illness with a high incidence of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">comorbidity</a> and the highest mortality rate of any psychiatric disorder.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa#cite_note-4"><span></span><span></span></a></sup><br />
It can affect men and women of all ages, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_%28classification_of_human_beings%29" title="Race (classification of human beings)">races</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomics" title="Socioeconomics">socioeconomic</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a> backgrounds.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa#cite_note-5"><span></span></a></sup>Anorexia nervosa occurs in the ratio of 1:10 in males:females.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa#cite_note-10"><span></span><span></span></a></sup><br />
The term anorexia nervosa was established in 1873 by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Gull,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir William Gull, 1st Baronet">Sir William Gull</a>, one of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a>'s personal physicians.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa#cite_note-11"><span></span></a></sup> The term is of Greek origin: <i>an-</i> (ἀν-, prefix denoting negation) and <i>orexis</i> (ὄρεξις, "appetite"), thus meaning a lack of desire to eat.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa#cite_note-12"><span></span></a><br />
<b>3. Bulimia Nervousa</b><br />
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<i>Bouse - (ox) Greek word<br />
Limos - (Hunger)</i><br />
Bouse of excessive hunger and eating often followed by forced vomiting or the loss of control over food intake. <br />
Bulimia nervosa is an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eating_disorder" title="Eating disorder">eating disorder</a> characterized by restraining of food intake for a period of time followed by an over intake or binging period that results in feelings of guilt and low self-esteem. The median age of onset is 18. Sufferers attempt to overcome these feelings through a number of ways.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Barker.2C_P_2003_0-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa#cite_note-Barker.2C_P_2003-0"><span></span></a></sup> The most common form is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defensive_vomiting" title="Defensive vomiting">defensive vomiting</a>, sometimes called purging; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fasting</a>, the use of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laxative" title="Laxative">laxatives</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enema" title="Enema">enemas</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diuretic" title="Diuretic">diuretics</a>, and over exercising are also common.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa#cite_note-1"><span></span></a></sup> Bulimia nervosa is nine times more likely to occur in women than men (Barker 2003). Antidepressants, especially SSRIs are widely used in the treatment of bulimia nervosa. (Newell and Gournay 2000).<br />
The word <i>bulimia</i> derives from the Latin (<i>būlīmia</i>), which originally comes from the Greek <i>βουλιμία</i> (boulīmia; ravenous hunger), a compound of <i>βους</i> (bous), ox + <i>λιμός</i> (līmos), hunger.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa#cite_note-2"><span></span></a></sup> Bulimia nervosa was named and first described by the British psychiatrist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Russell" title="Gerald Russell">Gerald Russell</a> in 1979.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa#cite_note-3"><span></span></a>Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-37767123732752875502010-12-31T11:26:00.000-08:002010-12-31T11:26:11.428-08:00Circadian Rhythms and ZeitgebersIt is defined as a daily rhythmical change in behavior or physiological process, such rhythms are controlled by mechanism within the organism by internal clock which is a biological clock. In the brain the principal biological clock appears to be located in suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) -- a nucleus situated atop the optic chiasm. It contains a biological clock responsible for organizing many of the body circadian rhythms.<br />
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<b>Zeitgebers</b><br />
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A stimulus that reset the biological clock responsible for circadian rhythms. In animals Pineal gland controls circadian rhythms.<br />
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<b>Biological Basis of Behavior</b><br />
<b>Aggressive Behavior</b><br />
"An emotional state consisting felling of hate and desire to inflict harm. Overt response that involves actual or intended destruction of other organisms". OR "A species typical behavior at pattern of movements, biting, striking ets".<br />
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<b>Types</b><br />
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<b>Threat Behavior</b><br />
A behavior which is consisted on postures or jestures that warm the adversely to leave or it will become the target or attack.<br />
<b>Defensive Behavior</b><br />
A behavior that occures against the threatening situation or behavior.<br />
<b>Submissive Behavior</b><br />
A behavior which indicate that it accepts defeat and will not challange the other one.<br />
<b>Predated Behavior</b><br />
Behavior which is consist of an attack of one organism at an individual of another specie on which the attacking animals.<br />
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<b>Neural Control of Aggressive Behavior</b><br />
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The activity of brain stem circuits appears to be controlled by hypothalmus and amygadala which have a special influence on a species typical behavior. The activity of these parts of brain is controlled by perceptual system that detect the status of environment including the presence of other behaviors while specifically. The defensive and predators is attached with the pre-aquaductal gray matter (PAG) of midbrain. While as aggressive behavior is along wth the above said part the seretonergic synapes involved in this behavior.<br />
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<b>Aggression in Male and Female</b><br />
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Aggression in male and female is controlled by neural circuits that are stimulated by endrogen gland. Androginization has an organization affects. The secretion of theis gland is associated with male and female Sexual behavior. Androgin secrets a hormone testosterm and projesterm which facilitate the Sexual organ and are involved in agression behavior.Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-59264129665010020362010-12-31T11:17:00.000-08:002010-12-31T11:21:15.916-08:00Temperature Regulation<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6RJuR4Y7o0dqFO-Ubc1XZPPe57na9K-YsLCHz9WnVtIgXEfG3dRB9gPuJhpQqKNfliIneKN2KfBkz0VxuQLH466k2UzsHIEPgI_204lhlROhT4nffC2d1A_g0MmGqRCle7mo_2Ls45y4/s1600/Skin.jpg"><img style="float: right; margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; cursor: pointer; width: 311px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6RJuR4Y7o0dqFO-Ubc1XZPPe57na9K-YsLCHz9WnVtIgXEfG3dRB9gPuJhpQqKNfliIneKN2KfBkz0VxuQLH466k2UzsHIEPgI_204lhlROhT4nffC2d1A_g0MmGqRCle7mo_2Ls45y4/s320/Skin.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5556928535416815714" border="0" /></a>Human body automatically maintains a constant body temperature of 37*c or 98.6*F. This temperature may fluctuate itself according to the nature of environment. This automatically system maintain the body internal condition and it is known to be homeostasis which means a state of balance or equilibrium among internal physiological condition. When human body alterate the temperature regulation according to the alteration. This process is known to be endotherm which means any process that in response to alteration of a given condition.Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-44008817514304587712010-08-24T11:06:00.000-07:002010-08-24T11:10:35.044-07:00Techniques<div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Neurological Techniques</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></div><span style="font-weight: bold;">1. CT Scan (Computerized Tomography Scanner)</span><br /><br />(Some Writing about Brain with Computer)<br />It is also called CAT-Computerized Axial Topography.It is a technique in which a device is used with computer to analyze data obtained by the scanning a beam of x-ray to procedure a two dimensional picture of a slice through body.It was firstly introduced in 1983. It an important medical toll for structural imaging of neurological damage in living people.This method is used for the diagnostic process of "Strock, Hemorrhage, Tumor and so on and some disorders of Memory, Language, Attention and other cognitive functions.It is also involved in finding out some "Lesion" of the brain.<br />Procedurally the patient's head is traced in a wrong shaped instrument.This ring is contained X-ray tube directly opposite to patient's head.A ray of beam passes through the patient's head and detector measures the amount of radio-activity and computer translate the number from the detector into pictures of the skull and its contents.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">2. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)</span><br /><br />This technique is resembled to CT-Scan but it does not use X-ray.A strong magnetic field is used which is consist on Radio-waves and strong magnetic field. MRI is used to see the individual's Sulci (miner parts of cerebral cortex). It is also involved for the diagnostic of demilenation which is the major characteristic multiple sclerosis.<br />Procedurally a person's body is placed in a strong magnetic field.The nuclei of some atoms in molecules in the body spin with a particular orientation. A radio frequency is passed to the body.These nuclei emit radio waves of their own. For this purpose different molecules emit energy at different frequencies. MRI scanner is tuned to detect the radiation of this radiation prepare pictures of slices of brain.<br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Converging Techniques</span><br /></div><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">1. TMS (Trans Cranial Magnetic Stimulation)</span><br /><br />This method is used to stimulation of cortex by the magnetic field produce by alternating current passing through a coil placed against the skull disrupts normal activities of the affected brain regions.<br />Procedurally it is consisted of a tidily wrapped wire coil that is in cased in an insulated sheet and connected to a source of powerful electrical capacitor.This capacitor send a large electrical current through the coil resulting in the generation of magnetic field.When the coil is placed on the surface of skull the magnetic field passes through the skin and induced a physiological current that result in the firing of neuron.<br />This method is used to explore the role of many different brain areas.This method is specially used in Clinical Psychology.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">2. EEG (Electro Encephlo Gram)</span><br /><br />It is defined as an electrical brain potential recorded by placing electrodes on the scalp.This method is mostly used to diagnose Epilepsy, Brain tumour and stages of sleep.It is also called writings of electricity from the brain. It is also known as recording and study of gross electrical activity of the brain recorded from large electrodes placed on the Head.<br />Hans Berger discovered this method in 1924.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">3. ERP (Event Related Potential)</span><br /><br />This method is also known as Evoked Potential in which gross potential charges evoked by discrete stimuli such as light flashes etc. The ERP provide a way to assess the integrity and function of the brain "STEM" and especially its Auditory pathways, it detects in the brain activity rapidly.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">4. MEG (Magneto Encephlo Graphy)</span><br /><br />It is a technique which is used to measure the magnetic signals generated by the brain measured by sensitive magnetic detectors places along the head similar to the way EEG measure the surface electrical activity.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">5. f MRI (Functional MRI)</span><br /><br />It is the modification of MRI, just like MRI scanner acquire images rapidly and permit the measurement of regional metabolism in the brain. It is the more advance method which revealed more detail information about the activity of the brain.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">6. PET (Positron Emission Topography)</span><br /><br />This method is used to measure the metabolic activity of the specific brain region.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;"> Lesion Technique</span><br /><br />Lesion mean an injury or wound so it is defined as technique in which behavior of organism with its brain is studied e.g Low behavior is altered by selective removing one or two parts of the brain. Procedurally it can be done through surgery or by excitotoxically.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;"> Knock out Procedure</span><br /><br />This technique is used for the alternation and elimination of the specific genes. This technique is used to study behavioral changes that occure in organism that have developed without the targeted genes or to observed how genes code the development of nervous system.Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-63919558585162036742010-06-29T20:52:00.000-07:002010-06-29T20:53:32.303-07:00Top 1 Education<span style="font-style: italic;">Study Online or in UK.</span> MBA, M.Sc Finance, M.Sc Marketing or LLM from top British institution. £9500 Scholarship Available. Apply today.Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-65365562785465804842010-06-29T20:51:00.000-07:002010-06-29T20:52:43.648-07:00Psychology Education<span style="font-weight: bold;">Oxford University</span>. Associate's, Master's, MBA's, M phil's & Doctoral Degrees.. For those ready to take a step into the real-world.Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-5080498955330317092010-06-29T20:47:00.000-07:002010-06-29T20:50:36.683-07:00Grand Canyon University an Rankings<span style="font-weight: bold;">Grand Canyon University</span> - Bachelor’s and Master’s Degrees. Grand Canyon University is a college in a Christian community that provides many advantages that many other online colleges do not offer. Each student is handled individually at Grand Canyon, where a great administrative staff makes sure every need is met.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">College and University Rankings</span><br /><br />The College and university rankings are a lists of universities and liberal arts colleges in higher education.Rankings can be based on subjectively perceived "quality," on some combination of empirical statistics, or on surveys of educators, scholars, students, prospective students or others. Rankings are often consulted by prospective students and their parents in the university and college admissions process.Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-76816189808813545732010-06-28T23:25:00.000-07:002010-06-28T23:29:58.811-07:00Dopamine (DA)<div style="text-align: center;">One of the catecholamine NTM based on amines.One amine produce both excitatory and inhibitory.Post synaptic potentials depending on post-synaptic receptors.It is involved in movement, attention, learning and reinforcing effects of drugs that people tends to abuse.<br /></div><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Bio Synthesis</span><br /><ul><li>It is synthesized by an essential amino acid tyrosine.</li><li>An enzyme converts tyrosine into L-Dopa.</li><li>Another enzyme converts L-Dopa into Dopamine.</li></ul><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure</span><br /><br />In liver<br /><br /><span style="font-style: italic;">Tyrosine____ L-Dopa____ Dopamine____ No-epinephrine</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">L-Dopa</span><br /><br />It is a biological active form of dopamine the precursor of catecholamine often used to treat for Parkinson because of its effect a dopamine agonist.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Controlling Drugs of Dopamine</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">1. Agonist</span><br /><br />A drug which facilitate the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the post-synaptic cell.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">2. Antagonist</span><br /><br />A drug that oppose or inhibit the effects of a particular NTM on the post-synaptic cell.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Systems of Dopaminergic Neuron</span><br /><br />The brain contains three important systems of dopaminergic neuron.Three systems are found in dopamine system in blood is called dopaminergic neuron system.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">1. Nigrostriatal System</span><br /><br />It means the system of neuron which originate in the substatia nigra and project their axons to neostriatum which is important part of basal ganglia involved in the control of movement.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">2. Mesolimbic System</span><br /><br />A system of dopaminergic neuron originate in the ventral tegmental area and terminating their axons in the frontal cortex, amygadala and hypo-campus.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">3. Mesocortical System</span><br /><br />The system of dopaminergic neuron originating in the ventral tegmental area and terminating in the pre-frontal cortex located in the ventral tegmention area.These neuron effect such function as formation of short-term memory, planing preparation and problem solving.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Receptors of Dopamine </span><br /><br />At least five types of dopamine receptors.<br /><br /><span style="font-style: italic;">D1, D2, D3, D4, D5</span><br /><span style="font-style: italic;">D1 or D2 are more common receptors.</span>Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-59016609318564002132010-06-28T22:11:00.000-07:002010-06-28T22:33:50.663-07:00Memory<div style="text-align: center;">"Memory is defined as the activity to remember past events, information and skills".<br /></div><div style="font-style: italic; text-align: center;">"It is a mental capacity to store and later recall or recognized events that were previously experienced".<br /></div><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">According to Cognitive Psychologist</span><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-style: italic;">"Memory is perceptual mental active system that receives encode modify and retrieves information".</span><br /></div><span style="font-weight: bold;">Types of Memory</span><br /><ul><li>Sensory Memory</li><li>Short-term Memory</li><li>Long-term Memory</li></ul><span style="font-weight: bold;">1. Sensory Memory</span><br /><br />Kind of memory which last only for<span style="font-style: italic;"> mili seconds</span> but its capacity is essentially unlimited in what may be taken.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">2. Short-term Memory</span><br /><br />Type of memory which is of limited capacity over <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">2-7 bits</span> of information and degrades over a matter of seconds, if information is not transferred to a long-term memory.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">3. Long-term Memory</span><br /><br />The unlimited capacity and relatively permanent traces of memory which lasts months and years.Such ability is called long-term memory.Neuro-psychologist are more concerned with long-term memory and its disorders.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Sub-systems of Long-term Memory</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">1. Declarative Memory</span><br /><br />A form of memory that is explicit verbalize and excess-able to conscious awareness.This term comes from declare which means to proclaim to announce.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Sub Types</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">I. Semantic Memory</span><br /><br />It is generalized memory such as knowing the meaning of word with knowing where or when you learned that words.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">II. Episodic Memory</span><br /><br />Episodic memory is autobiographical memory that pertain to a person's particular history.When we recall specific episodes or relate an event to a particular time and place.<br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Brain Areas Involved in Declarative Memory</span><br /></div><br />Research has implicated <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">3 </span>major structures which are involved in declarative memory.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">I. The 1st center around the Medial Temporal Lobe</span><br /><br />This center is mostly consisted on the hypo-campus and medial temporal lobe.Neuro-psychologist believed periphinal and para-hypo-campus cortex's adjacent to hypocampal formation have a deep role in memory.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">II. The 2nd center which is around the Diencephala</span><br /><br />the structure of diencephla involved in memory centered around specific nuclei of the thalamus and mamillary bodies of the hypothalamus.This thalamus consist of several nuclei which the dorsal medial nucleus of the thalamus which is often implicated and<span style="font-style: italic;"> korsa koffa syndrome</span> and in some case of amnesia.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">III. The Basal fore-brain</span><br /><br />The basal fore-brain is a sub cortical part of the talencephala surrounding the inferior tips of the frontal horns and is interconnected with limbic structure, a part of limbic system. Expert suggest that extensive damage of basal fore-brain affected the memory.Another system of declarative memory is called paps circuit which is an anatomic circuit central around the hypo-campus plays a deep role in the declarative memory processing.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">2. Procedural Memory</span><br /><br />Non declarative memory include instances of perceptual stimulus response and motor learning that are not necessarily conscious or the memory demonstrated by means where by conscious awareness is not always necessarily such as skill learning and conditioning. Non declarative memory appears operate automatically.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Sub Types</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">I. Skill Learning</span><br /><br />In this type subjects perform a challenging task on repeated trails in one or more.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">II. Priming/Repeation</span><br /><br />Priming is also called repeation.Priming refers to the fact that when people perceive a particular stimulus.It becomes easier for them to perceive again.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">III. Conditioning</span><br /><br />Very simple it means salivation when you see a favorite food.<br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Areas Neural Model for Non-declarative Memory</span><br /></div><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">1. Temporal Lobe</span><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;">The area of the cortex consisted on two hemispheres Right and Left.<br /><br /></div>Researchers suggest that the temporal cortex makes a significant contribution in the memory.Due to impairment of these hemispheres memory function may become disturb e.g Right temporal lobe removal patients are impaired on face recognition, spatial position and maze learning test. Left temporal lesion functional impairment can create disturbances in the recall of word's list, recall of constant diagrams, non spatial association, regulation of non sense figure, tunes and previously seen photographs.<br />Due to cortical cortex injuries in partial posterior or temporal lobe and occipital lobe produce long-term memory difficulties e.g color amnesia, phase amnesia, prosopagnosia, object amnesia, topographically amnesia (Inability to recall the location of the environment).Damage of cortex can calls Alzheimer's desease.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">2. Amygdala</span><br /><br />This part is composed of number of separate nuclei.Each has its specific functions and are associated emotional events.It is much involved in memory.<br /><ul><li>The medial nucleus</li><li>The lateral</li><li>The central nucleus</li><li>The basal nucleus</li><li>The medial nucleus is consisted on several sub nuclei that receive sensory inputs.</li></ul><span style="font-weight: bold;">3. Hipocampus</span><br /><br />Studies indicate that the damages in hypo-campus can create spatial memory e.g field difficulty of remembering ability.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">4. The Periphinal Cortex</span><br /><br />The damage to the periphinal the most lateral position of the medial temporal lobe caused visual tasks or recognition memory defects.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">5. The Basal Fore-brain</span><br /><br />The area just anterior to the hypothalamus in which polynergic fibers lie.The polynergic fibers projects to all cortical areas and provided up-to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">70</span> percent of polynergic synapse in these areas.These cells are actively involved in memory functions.Impairments in this area creates some kind of amnesia.Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-20975929489921816462010-06-28T22:02:00.000-07:002010-06-28T22:10:54.582-07:00Disorders of Memory<div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-style: italic;">"Memory is defined as the activity to remember past events, information and skills". </span><br /></div><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">1. Amnesia</span><br /></div><br /><div style="text-align: center;">"Complete or partial loss of memory due to the psychological and neurological problems known as Amnesia".<br /></div><span style="font-weight: bold;">Types</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">I. Anterograde Amnesia</span><br /><br />It refers to difficulty in learning new information.A person with it can remember events that occured in the past during the time before the brain damage occured but can't retain information.He / She encounters after the damage or very very simply the loss of memory for events after Trauma or desease.Such kind of amnesia is caused by damage to the temporal lobe.<br /><span style="font-style: italic;">Scoville and Milner </span>1957 reported that lateral removal of the medial temporal lobe produce a memory impairments in human beings excluding temporal lobe dmageness of hypo-campus may became the source of such amnesia.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">II. Retrograde Amnesia</span><br /><br />Difficulty inability to recall past events.It refers to the inability to remember events that happened before the brain damage occured or in other word the loss of old memory prior to an event or illness.<br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">2. Alzheimer Disease</span><br /></div><br /><div style="text-align: center;">"It is a neurological disorder / desease which is caused to deterioration of intellectual abilities resulting from an organic brain disorders. It is characterized by progressive loss of memory and other mental function".<br /></div>Person forgets his appointments and person's names.his desease is produce by sever degeneration of hippo-campus. neo-cortex and especially the association cortex of the frontal and temporal lobes.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Factors</span><br /><br /><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">1. </span>Neuritic Plaques</span><br /><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">2.</span> Nero Fiberi-llary Tangles</span><br /><br />Impair memory and learning problem at all level (encoding, storage, retrieval and retention).The brain that holds previously well semantic knowledge.Information unorganized associational frame work begin to deteriorate.Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-81474313742970064552010-06-28T21:56:00.000-07:002010-06-28T22:00:56.165-07:00PeptidesA type of compound from of a number of amino-acid molecule linked together can be regarded as "formed by a reaction of a carboxyl group of amino-acid reacts with the amino-acid groups of another amino-acid with elimination water. The linked b/w amino-acid called peptide bonds".<br /><div style="text-align: center;">Many peptide procedure by cell of brain serve as NTM, neuro=-modulators or hormone protein.All peptides are produced from precursor molecules.Peptides are released from all parts of the terminal button into the synaptic cleft by neuron.<br /></div><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Function</span><br /><br />Peptides play a primary role in chemical transmitting information in the nervous system and are active in other process of body.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Bio Synthesis</span><br /><ul><li>Peptide from precursor molecules.</li><li>These precursor are broken into pieces by special enzymes.</li><li>Synthesis of peptides takes place in the soma.These chemicals must be delivered to the terminal buttons.</li></ul><span style="font-weight: bold;">Families of Peptides</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">1. Endogenous Opioid</span><br /><br />These drugs reduce pain because they have direct effect on the brain.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">2. Enkephalins Receptors</span><br /><br /><span style="font-style: italic;">Pert, Snowman and Synder (1974) </span>are discovered the localized region which carry the several receptors which respond to Opiate.These receptors are called enkephalos receptors or peptides.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Opiate Receptors</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">U</span> = (mu, receptors)<br /><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">D </span>= (delta receptors)<br /><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">K</span> = (kapra receptors)<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Behavioral Effects</span><br /><ul><li>It reduces pain or sensitivity to pain.</li><li>It is involved in species typical behavior.</li><li>It is responsible for regulating / controlling eating.</li><li>It activate thrust (angiotensin peptides).</li><li>It regulates urinary activities of the kidneys.</li></ul>Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-37478935246694066262010-06-28T21:49:00.000-07:002010-06-28T21:55:56.983-07:00Acetylcholine (Ach)<div style="text-align: center;">Acetylcholine is the primary NTM secreted by efferent axons of the central nervous system (CNS). Ach is also found at the majority of synapse where one nerve cell needs another nerve and produced Ach.These synapse are said to be acetylcholinergic synapse. They from the para-sympathetic nervous system.This chemical substance is stores in the viscles near the synapse and released when a nerve impulse arrives.<br /></div><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Bio Synthesis</span><br /><br />It is composed of two components.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">1. Choline</span><br /><br />A substance derived from the breakdown of lipids.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">2. Acetate (Acetic Acid)</span><br /><br />Acetate transferred from a molecule CoA (Acetyl-CoA) which is produced by mitochondria.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure</span><br /><br /><span style="font-style: italic;">CoA+Acetate____ ChAT (Choline Aceytl transferase)____ Acetylcholine (Ach)</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Behavioral Effects</span><br /><ul><li>The acytlcholinergic neurons located in the dorsal lateral pons are responsible of REM (Rapid Eye Movement).</li><li>The neurons which are located in the basal fore-brain are involved in learning especially in perceptual learning.</li><li>Muscular movement is accomplished by the release of Ach.</li><li>The neurons which are located in the medial septum control the electrical rhythms of hyppocmpus, formate the kind of memories.</li></ul><span style="font-weight: bold;">Receptors of Acytlcholine</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicotinic Receptors</span><br /><br />It is stimulated by nicotine (A drug found in tobacco leaves).<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Muscrainic Receptors</span><br /><br />It is stimulated by muscrainic (A drug found in the poison mushroom) (Amanita muscaria).Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3355527678111177344.post-86252166037098211252010-06-23T22:45:00.000-07:002010-06-28T22:52:42.270-07:00Serotonin<div style="text-align: center;">An indolamine neurotransmitter on of the subgroup of mono-amine/amines also called 5-HT or 5-hydroxytryptamine.Its chemical name is 5-HT. It is discovered by Jouvet. It is produced by raphe nuclei near the mid brain and project axons to the cerebral cortex.<br /></div><div style="text-align: center;">According to dictionary of biology "serotonin acts on muscles and nerves".It controls dilation and constriction of blood vessels and effects gestro intestinal tracks/region. ts also related to depression.<br /><br /></div><span style="font-weight: bold;">Bio Synthesis</span><br /><br />The precursor of 5-HT is the amines acid tryptophan.An enzyme converts tryptophan to 5-HTP (5-hydroxytryptophan). Another enzyme converts 5-HTP to 5-HT (serotonin).<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure</span><br /><br /><span style="font-style: italic;">Tryptophan_____ 5-HTP______ 5-HT.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Behavioral Effects</span><br /><ul><li>5-HT plays a role in the regulation of mood.</li><li>It controls the eating, sleep and arousal activities.</li><li>It controls and regulate pain.</li><li>It is also involved in dreaming.</li><li>Studies indicate that suicidal depression is related to 5-HT level.</li></ul><span style="font-weight: bold;">Serotonergic Neuron</span><br /><br />The neurons are found in the nine cluster.The most of the clusters are located in the raphe nuclei of the mid brain pones and medulla.The two most important clusters are found in the dorsal and medulla.The two most important clusters are found in the dorsal and medial raphe nuclei.<br />Like Nor-epinephrine, 5-HT is released from varicosities. Investigators have identified nine different types of serotonin receptors.Yasir Ranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16351145337821840902noreply@blogger.com0